Artemisinin biosynthesis in Artemisia annua and metabolic engineering: questions, challenges, and perspectives

Artemisinin-based combination therapy (act) forms the frontline treatment of malaria. artemisinin, an endoperoxide sesquiterpenoid lactone biosynthesized by artemisia annua, is the effective medicine that kills malarial parasites. due to insufficient production of artemisinin for act, millions of people lost their lives in past years worldwide. to solve this severe problem, numerous studies have been undertaken to understand artemisinin biosynthesis and to innovate metabolic engineering technology to increase artemisinin yield. here, we focus on reviewing progresses achieved in understanding biosynthetic pathway, genetic breeding, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology. furthermore, based on current knowledge, we discuss multiple fundamental questions and challenges.