new wine in a new bottle: refining the assessment of authentic leadership using exploratory structural equation modeling (esem)

The aim of this study was to investigate the multidimensional nature of authentic leadership (al) through the re-evaluation of the factor structure of the most commonly used scales in al research, the authentic leadership questionnaire (alq) and the authentic leadership inventory (ali). results from exploratory structural equation modeling (esem) conducted among 538 workers of private (57,81%) and public (42,19%) organizations provide support for the multidimensional nature of al but also reveal excessive content overlap across subscales and an inability to properly reflect the a priori factor structure of both instruments. further analyses enabled the identification of key items from both instruments providing a cleaner depiction of the a priori dimensionality of al, leading to the development of an integrated optimized measure, the authentic leadership integrated questionnaire (al-iq). the main contribution of this study is the proposition of an alternative and optimized measure of authentic leadership that sheds light on the distinct theoretical facets of this positive leadership style. our data suggest that the al-iq is a promising tool for characterizing the strengths and weaknesses of leaders and managers’ al practices. to our knowledge, this is the first study to use a combination of classical confirmatory factor analyses (cfa) and newly developed esem framework to assess the construct validity (factor structure, reliability, and criterion-related validity) of the two main al measures: the alq and the ali.