the role of phytoestrogens from medicinal plants in modulating reproductive performance in livestock:a veterinary pharmacology perspective

Phytoestrogens constitute a heterogeneous class of plant-derived compounds whose chemical framework closely resembles that of estradiol-17β (e2). owing to this structural mimicry, they are often described as estrogen-like molecules or non-steroidal estrogens. livestock production underpins both global food security and economic stability) accounting for about 40 % of agricultural output worldwide and supporting the livelihoods of roughly 1.3 billion people), and in developing countries it can contribute 15–80 % of agricultural gdp; within this sector, improving reproductive performance is essential for sustaining and enhancing profitability 1. multiple studies show that some of the phytoestrogens exposure markedly influences reproductive health, with effects varying according to dose and exposure route. administered at 50–200 mg kg⁻¹ of feed, the legume phytoestrogen daidzein boosts reproductive performance in multiple livestock species 2. it raises embryo numbers, litter weight, and milk yield in sows and rats; hastens lay onset and improves egg and bone quality in poultry; and yields comparable gains in ruminants 3. these benefits arise from estrogen-receptor modulation plus antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that elevate reproductive hormones, adjust key ovarian genes (↑ erβ, nr5a2; ↓ prlr), and strengthen antioxidant defenses collectively enhancing gamete quality, fetal growth, and early, high-quality egg production. peer-reviewed evidence shows that supplementing a tris-based semen extender with roughly 10 µm genistein during freezing or thawing markedly elevates the quality of cryopreserved ram sperm: the additive increases post-thaw motility, protects acrosomal structure, suppresses caspase-3 activity, and significantly decreases dna fragmentation, thereby raising the success rate of artificial insemination. although many studies have demonstrated the positive effects of phytosterols on animal reproduction, others have reported conflicting results. formononetin, a phytoestrogen prevalent in red clover, is metabolized to equol (a compound with even stronger estrogenic activity) both of which can markedly disturb livestock reproduction. in sheep, sustained exposure causes structural changes in the uterus and cervix that lead to infertility and erratic estrous cycles, while in cattle it has been associated with the formation of ovarian cysts and short-term infertility. the present review explores the prospective application of medicinal herbs to enhance reproductive performance in animals.