global variations in antibiotic resistance and vaccination approaches for ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in poultry: challenges and emerging solutions

In poultry, ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ort) is a major pathogen, which causes respiratory distress, growth retardation, and increased mortality, resulting in significant economic losses. aerial aerosols and contaminated water spread the infection, and routine antibiotic susceptibility testing remains challenging since the bacterium is difficult to isolate. the disease is characterized by 18 different serotypes, resulting in a variety of treatment strategies and vaccines. this review evaluates regional variations in ort antibiotic resistance and the effectiveness of existing and emerging vaccination protocols. a comprehensive literature search was conducted using international databases (google scholar, pubmed, elsevier, scopus) and other sources (sid, magiran), with keywords including ornithobacterium rhinotracheale, antibiotic resistance, poultry vaccines, and antimicrobial therapy. an analysis of antibiotic susceptibility and vaccine efficacy studies was conducted. antibiotic resistance is significantly different across regions based on local antibiotic usage, geographical conditions, and poultry management practices, among other factors. it has been reported that resistance has been growing to common antibiotics such as penicillin, ampicillin, and tetracycline in high-use areas, highlighting the urgent need for alternative therapies. while spectinomycin, tylosin, and neomycin have shown moderate effectiveness, their success is not consistent across all regions. ort infections lead to substantial economic losses globally, resulting in more condemned carcasses and posing a threat to global food security. although zoonotic transmission of ort has not yet been confirmed, but it is an area that needs more study. recent advancements in molecular diagnostics, such as pcr and next-generation sequencing, have enhanced the detection of ort strains and monitoring of antibiotic resistance. vaccine trials involving inactivated, live attenuated, and recombinant vaccines offer promising results, though regional adjustments may be required. combating ort resistance and refining vaccination protocols requires international strategies. future research should focus on regional surveillance, targeted vaccine development, and policy changes to reduce the impact of ort on poultry health and production.