metal oxide functionalized nanoparticles for the treatment of bacterial infection: synthesis, characterization, and therapeutic applications

Bacterial infections remain a major global health concern, worsened by the rise of antimicrobial resistance (amr) and the declining effectiveness of traditional medicines. metal oxide-functionalized nanoparticles (mofnps) have emerged as promising alternatives due to their unique physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. this review provides a comprehensive overview of the synthesis, characterization, and therapeutic applications of mofnps in treating bacterial infections. certain metal oxides—such as zinc oxide (zno), titanium dioxide (tio2), copper oxide (cuo), and iron oxide (fe2o3)—exhibit strong antibacterial effects through multiple mechanisms. these include the generation of reactive oxygen species (ros), membrane disruption, metal ion release, and biofilm inhibition. the physicochemical properties and therapeutic performance of mofnps are influenced by different synthesis methods, including chemical, green, and physical functionalization techniques. advanced characterization techniques, such as x-ray diffraction (xrd), scanning electron microscopy (sem), fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ftir), and dynamic light scattering (dls), are crucial for understanding their structure and function. mofnps demonstrate great adaptability in healthcare applications, including wound healing, drug delivery, implant coatings, and water disinfection. however, challenges such as cytotoxicity, stability, and regulatory hurdles must be addressed for successful clinical translation. this study highlights the transformative potential of mofnps in infection management and reviews recent advancements in mofnp-based antibacterial therapies. future research should aim to enhance biocompatibility, optimize large-scale production, and achieve regulatory approval to facilitate widespread medical use.