socio-economic and biophysical determinants of landscape restoration adoption among smallholder farmers

Land degradation significantly threatens global food security and ecosystems, necessitating effective landscape restoration measures, particularly among smallholder farmers in vulnerable areas like the womba watershed. this study investigates the localized socio-economic and physical factors influencing the adoption of landscape restoration practices within the womba watershed. utilizing data from 337 randomly selected household heads, along with focus group discussions and key informant interviews, the data were analyzed using descriptive and multivariate probit modeling estimation.the findings reveal that physical restoration practices, biological land management practices, and agronomic measures are prevalent among farmers. key factors influencing adoption include gender dynamics, with male-headed households favoring physical interventions, while female-headed households prefer agronomic approaches. age negatively impacts the adoption of physical and biological practices, while education correlates positively with agronomic methods. family size enhances agronomic adoption, and access to credit significantly increases the likelihood of implementing diverse restoration strategies. village memberships are positively associated with four landscape restoration practices at a 1% significance level. notably, while farmers recognize the ecological benefits of these practices, their perceptions of socio-economic advantages remain limited. to promote broader adoption of restoration initiatives, policymakers should enhance educational outreach on the long-term socio-economic benefits and improve access to credit and extension services. integrating these dimensions into policy frameworks will foster greater participation from both male and female farmers, ultimately supporting sustainable development in the womba watershed and beyond. land degradation significantly threatens global food security and ecosystems, necessitating effective landscape restoration measures, particularly among smallholder farmers in vulnerable areas like the womba watershed. this study investigates the localized socio-economic and physical factors influencing the adoption of landscape restoration practices within the womba watershed. utilizing data from 337 randomly selected household heads, along with focus group discussions and key informant interviews, the data were analyzed using descriptive and multivariate probit modeling estimation.the findings reveal that physical restoration practices, biological land management practices, and agronomic measures are prevalent among farmers. key factors influencing adoption include gender dynamics, with male-headed households favoring physical interventions, while female-headed households prefer agronomic approaches. age negatively impacts the adoption of physical and biological practices, while education correlates positively with agronomic methods. family size enhances agronomic adoption, and access to credit significantly increases the likelihood of implementing diverse restoration strategies. village memberships are positively associated with four landscape restoration practices at a 1% significance level. notably, while farmers recognize the ecological benefits of these practices, their perceptions of socio-economic advantages remain limited. to promote broader adoption of restoration initiatives, policymakers should enhance educational outreach on the long-term socio-economic benefits and improve access to credit and extension services. integrating these dimensions into policy frameworks will foster greater participation from both male and female farmers, ultimately supporting sustainable development in the womba watershed and beyond.