Surface modification of metallic orthopedic implants for anti-pathogenic characteristics

Bacterial infection is one of the main reasons for the long-term failure of orthopedic implants. despite remarkable progression in antimicrobial drugs, implant-associated infection (iai) remains difficult to treat, which is resulted from bacterial resistance against antibiotics. as a result, there is an urgent need to develop alternative approaches. the present review highlights surface modification of the orthopedic implants as a promising approach to inhibit bacterial infection. this approach can be classified into two groups: (1) bacteriostatic (anti-adhesive), and (2) bactericidal (contact-killing/release-killing) surfaces. their combination, which is considered as bacteriostatic-bactericidal bi-functional surface, can provide a more robust approach against dangerous pathogenic species. new approaches and future perspectives in this inspiring field are also provided.