urban air quality nexus: pm2.5 bound-heavy metals and their alarming implication for incremental lifetime cancer risk

Fine particulate matter (pm2.5) have not only detrimental impacts on air quality but also acts as a source for a range of heavy metals that worsen the potential risks to public health. notably, previous studies on pm2.5-bound heavy metals in pakistan have primarily focused on individual cities. this study offers a comprehensive analysis of pollution characteristics related to pm2.5-bound heavy metals, including lead (pb), cadmium (cd), zinc (zn), and nickel (ni), in ten cities of pakistan. data was collected from a wide range of reliable sources spanning from 2013 to 2023. additionally, the human health risk assessment methodology endorsed by the united states environmental protection agency (us epa) was employed to evaluate both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for adults (males and females) and children. findings of the present study revealed that children faced a greater risk associated with pm2.5-bound heavy metals as compared to adults. cadmium, zinc, and nickel were found as the top three contributors to the average non-carcinogenic risk, while lead, cadmium, and nickel showed the highest carcinogenic risks. based on these findings, this study strongly recommend that the government should strengthen the management of industrial and vehicular emissions. furthermore, there is an imperative need to establish a real-time monitoring system capable of tracking toxic heavy metal pollutants transported through the atmosphere. additionally, policymakers should seriously contemplate regional collaborations with the goal of creating metropolitan initiatives for pollution control, thereby effectively addressing these paramount environmental and public health concerns.