netb toxin and immunization against necrotic enteritis in poultry: a comprehensive review

Necrotic enteritis, caused by avian-specific netb toxin-producing strains of clostridium perfringens type a, has gained worldwide concerns due to increased production losses and mortality in broilers, increased veterinarian costs, and the chance of getting contamination in products for human consumption. prevention strategies include supplementing diet or drinking water with conventional therapeutic antibiotic growth promoters and anti-coccidial drugs.. there are various strategies to prevent the disease, including antibiotic growth promoters. antibiotic growth promoters are antimicrobial agent that used for control of diseases such as necrotic enteritis. other factor for prevention, anti-coccidial drugs that are taken orally. however, vaccination against toxin-producing c. perfringens type a via nano, toxoid, genetically modified, or other clostridial vaccines is a effective preventive against necrotic enteritis. this comprehensive review describes the recent advances in the development of netb vaccines, other strategies to enhance immunization, their delivery systems in poultry against necrotic enteritis, and their pathogenesis. this review also exlains future immunization strategies like breeder hen vaccination, in ovo vaccination, and live (attenuated) vectors to be used in feed additives and other predisposing factors applicable in the field. all the vaccines discussed in the manuscript have shown their effectiveness against necrotic enteritis in poultry.