phytohormones and plant defense

Phytohormones, also known a plant growth regulators, regulate various physiological processes in plants, including germination, growth, and response to biotic and abiotic stresses. plant diseases, caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses, often alter hormonal pathways, leading to the simultaneous induction of antagonistic and synergistic hormones in plants. in resistant varieties, however, the hormonal responses follow a more sequential pattern. plant hormone signaling pathways are primarily polarized along two antagonistic axes: the salicylic acid (sa) and jasmonic acid (ja) pathways on one side, and the ethylene pathway on the other. in addition to sa, ja, and ethylene, other growth regulators, such as auxins, brassinosteroids, cytokinins, and abscisic acid (aba), also play significant roles in plant responses to biotic stress and are increasingly recognized for their importance in plant-pathogen interactions.  pathogens can modulate hormone biosynthesis and signaling to suppress plant defenses and alter the cellular environment, promoting their infection and proliferation. in this article, we will review the latest advances in understanding the function and regulation of plant hormones, the modulation of plant defense responses, and their synergistic and the crosstalk between phytohormones and defense pathways.