surface functionalization and plasma-based approaches in microfluidic models of leukocyte adhesion in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by endothelial dysfunction, with leukocyte adhesion primarily driven by interactions between p-selectin and psgl-1, which play a crucial role. capturing these rolling interactions under physiological shear stress is essential for understanding disease progression. however, traditional in vivo models and static assays often fail to replicate the dynamic blood flow conditions. microfluidic platforms have become valuable tools, enabling real-time studies of leukocyte behaviour under precisely controlled flow environments. a major challenge remains achieving stable and functional protein immobilization on microchannel surfaces. this review thoroughly examines both covalent and non-covalent surface functionalization techniques designed to incorporate reactive chemistries that boost ligand retention, reduce detachment, and maintain biological activity. when combined with protein micropatterning, these methods allow spatial control over adhesion molecules, better mimicking the complex heterogeneity of endothelial surfaces. despite their promise, current approaches still face issues with reproducibility, long-term stability, and application in complex biological systems, such as live-cell rolling assays or synthetic leukocyte models using nanoparticles. nonetheless, plasma-assisted microfluidic platforms present an exciting, largely unexplored opportunity for high-fidelity modelling of cardiovascular inflammation and leukocyte–endothelial interactions.