modeling stock-out loss and overstocking loss generated by bullwhip effect

Although the literature of the supply chain abounds with the analysis of the bullwhip effect, few studies regarding the impact of the bullwhip effect or demand distortion on the supply chain profit have been done. hence, the concept of distance to loss (dl) is introduced, which is a function of the retailer's selling price, the manufacturer's wholesale price, the end item's salvage value, the retailer's expected demand, and the retailer's variance of demand. this concept can perfectly model both stock-out loss and overstocking loss emanated by the bullwhip effect and combine both the newsvendor model and credit risk concepts. our findings are based on an experimental design and are profoundly in line with previous research. in particular, our model indicates that variations in demand parameters, retailer's selling price, and manufacturer's wholesale price impinge on the retailer's dl, whereas a slight increase in the salvage value negligibly affects the retailer's dl.