opium carcinogenicity: a systematic review of experimental studies

Several epidemiological studies have reported that regular use of opium can be associated with an increased risk of developing cancers, including oesophageal, laryngeal, bladder, lung, and gastric cancer. in this systematic review, we aimed at investigating whether experimental studies support this finding and, if yes, how opium consumption can cause cancer. most of the articles that have studied opium or its derivatives have found it as a carcinogen. however, due to the complex composition, different forms, and various ways of opium use, further comprehensive experimental studies are required. using modern genomic and epigenomic methods seems to help determine the molecular mechanisms underlying opium carcinogenicity.