Comparison of neuromuscular development in two dinophilid species (Annelida) suggests progenetic origin of Dinophilus gyrociliatus

Background: several independent meiofaunal lineages are suggested to have originated through progenesis,however,morphological support for this heterochronous process is still lacking. progenesis is defined as an arrest of somatic development (synchronously in various organ systems) due to early maturation,resulting in adults resembling larvae or juveniles of the ancestors. accordingly,we established a detailed neuromuscular developmental atlas of two closely related dinophilidae using immunohistochemistry and clsm. this allows us to test for progenesis,questioning whether i) the adult smaller,dimorphic dinophilus gyrociliatus resembles a younger developmental stage of the larger,monomorphic d. taeniatus and whether ii) dwarf males of d. gyrociliatus resemble an early developmental stage of d. gyrociliatus females. results: both species form longitudinal muscle bundles first,followed by circular muscles,creating a grid of body wall musculature,which is the densest in adult d. taeniatus,while the architecture in adult female d. gyrociliatus resembles that of prehatching d. taeniatus. both species display a subepidermal ganglionated nervous system with an anterior dorsal brain and five longitudinal ventral nerve bundles with six sets of segmental commissures (associated with paired ganglia). neural differentiation of d. taeniatus and female d. gyrociliatus commissures occurs before hatching: both species start out forming one transverse neurite bundle per segment,which are thereafter joined by additional thin bundles. whereas d. gyrociliatus arrests its development at this stage,adult d. taeniatus condenses the thin commissures again into one thick commissural bundle per segment. generally,d. taeniatus adults demonstrate a seemingly more organized (= segmental) pattern of serotonin-like and fmrfamide-like immunoreactive elements. the dwarf male of d. gyrociliatus displays a highly aberrant neuromuscular system,showing no close resemblance to any early developmental stage of female dinophilus,although the onset of muscular development mirrors the early myogenesis in females. conclusion: the apparent synchronous arrest of nervous and muscular development in adult female d. gyrociliatus,resembling the prehatching stage of d. taeniatus,suggests that d. gyrociliatus have originated through progenesis. the synchrony in arrest of three organ systems,which show opposing reduction and addition of elements,presents one of the morphologically best-argued cases of progenesis within spiralia. © 2016 the author(s).